development task

   1) A Comparison of the Digital Computer and the Brain

   The brain has been compared to a digital computer because the neuron, like a switch or valve, either does or does not complete a circuit. But at that point the similarity ends. The switch in the digital computer is constant in its effect, and its effect is large in proportion to the total output of the machine. The effect produced by the neuron varies with its recovery from [the] refractory phase and with its metabolic state. The number of neurons involved in any action runs into millions so that the influence of any one is negligible.... Any cell in the system can be dispensed with.... The brain is an analogical machine, not digital. Analysis of the integrative activities will probably have to be in statistical terms. (Lashley, quoted in Beach, Hebb, Morgan & Nissen, 1960, p. 539)

   2) Computers Do Not Crunch Numbers, They Manipulate Symbols

   It is essential to realize that a computer is not a mere "number cruncher," or supercalculating arithmetic machine, although this is how computers are commonly regarded by people having no familiarity with artificial intelligence. Computers do not crunch numbers; they manipulate symbols.... Digital computers originally developed with mathematical problems in mind, are in fact general purpose symbol manipulating machines....

   The terms "computer" and "computation" are themselves unfortunate, in view of their misleading arithmetical connotations. The definition of artificial intelligence previously cited-"the study of intelligence as computation"-does not imply that intelligence is really counting. Intelligence may be defined as the ability creatively to manipulate symbols, or process information, given the requirements of the task in hand. (Boden, 1981, pp. 15, 16-17)

   3) Getting Computers to Explain Things to Themselves

   The task is to get computers to explain things to themselves, to ask questions about their experiences so as to cause those explanations to be forthcoming, and to be creative in coming up with explanations that have not been previously available. (Schank, 1986, p. 19)

   4) Some Limits of Artificial Intelligence

   In What Computers Can't Do, written in 1969 (2nd edition, 1972), the main objection to AI was the impossibility of using rules to select only those facts about the real world that were relevant in a given situation. The "Introduction" to the paperback edition of the book, published by Harper & Row in 1979, pointed out further that no one had the slightest idea how to represent the common sense understanding possessed even by a four-year-old. (Dreyfus & Dreyfus, 1986, p. 102)

   5) The Computer as a Humanizing Influence

   A popular myth says that the invention of the computer diminishes our sense of ourselves, because it shows that rational thought is not special to human beings, but can be carried on by a mere machine. It is a short stop from there to the conclusion that intelligence is mechanical, which many people find to be an affront to all that is most precious and singular about their humanness.

   In fact, the computer, early in its career, was not an instrument of the philistines, but a humanizing influence. It helped to revive an idea that had fallen into disrepute: the idea that the mind is real, that it has an inner structure and a complex organization, and can be understood in scientific terms. For some three decades, until the 1940s, American psychology had lain in the grip of the ice age of behaviorism, which was antimental through and through. During these years, extreme behaviorists banished the study of thought from their agenda. Mind and consciousness, thinking, imagining, planning, solving problems, were dismissed as worthless for anything except speculation. Only the external aspects of behavior, the surface manifestations, were grist for the scientist's mill, because only they could be observed and measured....

   It is one of the surprising gifts of the computer in the history of ideas that it played a part in giving back to psychology what it had lost, which was nothing less than the mind itself. In particular, there was a revival of interest in how the mind represents the world internally to itself, by means of knowledge structures such as ideas, symbols, images, and inner narratives, all of which had been consigned to the realm of mysticism. (Campbell, 1989, p. 10)

   6) The Intentionality of Computers Is Essentially Borrowed, Hence Derivative

   [Our artifacts] only have meaning because we give it to them; their intentionality, like that of smoke signals and writing, is essentially borrowed, hence derivative. To put it bluntly: computers themselves don't mean anything by their tokens (any more than books do)-they only mean what we say they do. Genuine understanding, on the other hand, is intentional "in its own right" and not derivatively from something else. (Haugeland, 1981a, pp. 32-33)

   7) The Possibility of Computer Thought

   he debate over the possibility of computer thought will never be won or lost; it will simply cease to be of interest, like the previous debate over man as a clockwork mechanism. (Bolter, 1984, p. 190)

   8) We Are Getting Better at Building Even Better Computers, an Ever- Escalating Upward Spiral

   t takes us a long time to emotionally digest a new idea. The computer is too big a step, and too recently made, for us to quickly recover our balance and gauge its potential. It's an enormous accelerator, perhaps the greatest one since the plow, twelve thousand years ago. As an intelligence amplifier, it speeds up everything-including itself-and it continually improves because its heart is information or, more plainly, ideas. We can no more calculate its consequences than Babbage could have foreseen antibiotics, the Pill, or space stations.

   According to weak AI, the principle value of the computer in the study of the mind is that it gives us a very powerful tool. For example, it enables us to formulate and test hypotheses in a more rigorous and precise fashion than before. But according to strong AI the computer is not merely a tool in the study of the mind; rather the appropriately programmed computer really is a mind in the sense that computers given the right programs can be literally said to understand and have other cognitive states. And according to strong AI, because the programmed computer has cognitive states, the programs are not mere tools that enable us to test psychological explanations; rather, the programs are themselves the explanations. (Searle, 1981b, p. 353)

    10) Why People Are Smarter Than Computers

   What makes people smarter than machines? They certainly are not quicker or more precise. Yet people are far better at perceiving objects in natural scenes and noting their relations, at understanding language and retrieving contextually appropriate information from memory, at making plans and carrying out contextually appropriate actions, and at a wide range of other natural cognitive tasks. People are also far better at learning to do these things more accurately and fluently through processing experience.

   What is the basis for these differences? One answer, perhaps the classic one we might expect from artificial intelligence, is "software." If we only had the right computer program, the argument goes, we might be able to capture the fluidity and adaptability of human information processing. Certainly this answer is partially correct. There have been great breakthroughs in our understanding of cognition as a result of the development of expressive high-level computer languages and powerful algorithms. However, we do not think that software is the whole story.

   In our view, people are smarter than today's computers because the brain employs a basic computational architecture that is more suited to deal with a central aspect of the natural information processing tasks that people are so good at.... hese tasks generally require the simultaneous consideration of many pieces of information or constraints. Each constraint may be imperfectly specified and ambiguous, yet each can play a potentially decisive role in determining the outcome of processing. (McClelland, Rumelhart & Hinton, 1986, pp. 3-4)

¹ = business [businesses, -pl.], commercial firm, company, corporation, firm, business enterprise, outfit, business interest, business firm, industrial firm, commercial enterprise, operating company.

Nota: Perteneciente a un grupo.

Ex. To a small or mid-sized business, information is critical for effective planning, growth and development.

Ex. Difficulties over access to these can arise when research project has been financed by a scientific organization or commercial firm who have an interest in maintaining security.

Ex. Among the companies offering 'Mice' are Microsoft, Vision and Apple, but more are anticipated.

Ex. The main form of knowledge transfer and the basis for decision making within corporations has not been a paper, a document or a detailed report, but a set of overhead slides and the discussions around them.

Ex. The European Development Fund finances projects in overseas countries for which European-based firms can supply equipment and know-how.

Ex. The 'Books at work' project in Kalmar in southern Sweden is the result of collaboration between trade unions, business enterprises and the public library.

Ex. The author compares the advantages and disadvantages of buying from the larger established companies and smaller outfits.

Ex. As an example, the University of Hawaii libraries have installed an online catalogue on which they will hang a special assortment of databases that are needed by Hawaii and Pacific business interests.

Ex. Collection and preservation of records is an expensive pursuit and the task of persuading cost conscious business firms that they ought to preserve their records is an unenviable one.

Ex. In libraries serving industrial firms, for example, the cost of not finding information may be high; this is why 'hard headed businessmen' add to their overheads by paying for extensive library services.

Ex. Some commercial enterprises subsidise satellite communications for academic institutions.

Ex. In the future, these files will be made readily accessible to other Glaxo operating companies through the use of computers.

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* a cuenta de la empresa = at company expense.

* administración de empresas = business administration.

* admnistrador de empresa = firm administrator.

* archivo de empresa = business archives.

* biblioteca de empresa = commercial library, industrial library, corporate library, company library, business library.

* bibliotecario de empresa = industrial librarian.

* comida de empresa = company dinner.

* como las empresas = business-like.

* conglomerado de empresas = conglomerate.

* contratación de personal cualificado de otras empresas = lateral hiring.

* curso mixto de clases y práctica en la empresa = sandwich course.

* dejar la empresa = jump + ship.

* de la propia empresa = company-owned.

* de toda la empresa = systemwide.

* director de empresa = company director.

* directorio de empresas en base de datos = corporate directory database, company directory database.

* documentación de empresas = business record.

* empresa afiliada = sister company.

* empresa comercial = commercial agency, commercial vendor, commercial business, business firm.

* empresa con solera = established player.

* empresa consolidada = established player.

* empresa constructora = property developer.

* empresa consumada = established player.

* empresa de búsqueda personalizada de ejecutivos = headhunter.

* empresa de cobro de deudas = debt collection agency.

* empresa de contabilidad = accounting firm.

* empresa dedicada a la venta por correo = mail order company.

* empresa dedicada al desarrollo de productos = product developer.

* empresa dedicada a los sondeos de opinión = polling firm, polling agency.

* empresa dedicada al proceso del cereal = corn processor.

* empresa de grandes derroches = high roller.

* empresa de investigación = research firm.

* empresa de la limpieza = cleaning firm.

* empresa de liempza = cleaning business.

* empresa de limpieza = janitorial business.

* empresa de medios de comunicación = media company.

* empresa de mudanzas = mover.

* empresa de nuestro grupo = sister company, sister organisation.

* empresa de nueva creación = this sort of thing, startup [start-up].

* empresa de ordenadores = computer company.

* empresa de reparto de paquetes = package delivery company.

* empresa de seguridad = security firm.

* empresa de servicios = service organisation, service agency, service company.

* empresa de servicios de información = information broker, broker, information broking.

* empresa de servicio social = social utility.

* empresa de servicios públicos = public utility, utility company.

* empresa de solera = established player.

* empresa de telecomunicaciones = computer bureau.

* empresa de trabajo = industrial affiliation.

* empresa de un grupo = operating company.

* empresa de viajes = travel company.

* empresa en la que sólo pueden trabajar empleados que pertenezcan a un sindic = close shop.

* empresa farmacéutica = drug company.

* empresa filial = subsidiary company.

* empresa hipotecaria = mortgage company.

* empresa industrial = industrial firm.

* empresa organizadora de congresos = conference organiser.

* empresa privada = private vendor, private company, private business, private firm.

* empresa pública = civilian employer, public firm.

* empresas americanas, las = corporate America.

* empresa sindicada = union shop.

* empresa televisiva = television company.

* empresa transportadora = shipper, shipping agent.

* en toda la empresa = company-wide, systemwide.

* específico de las empresas = company-specific.

* fusión de empresas = consolidation.

* gasto de empresa = business expense.

* gestión de empresas = business management.

* grupo de empresas = business group.

* guardería de la empresa = workplace crêche.

* información sobre empresas = business intelligence.

* intranet de empresa = corporate intranet.

* libro de empresa = organisation manual.

* mercado de la empresa = corporate market.

* mundo de la empresa = business world.

* mundo de la empresa, el = corporate world, the.

* mundo de las empresas = business environment.

* página web de empresa = business site, corporate site.

* para toda la empresa = company-wide, enterprise-wide.

* partícipe en la empresa = corporate insider.

* patrocinado por la propia empresa = company-sponsored.

* pequeña empresa = small business.

* persona de la propia empresa = insider.

* programa de prácticas en la empresa = internship program(me), internship.

* programa mixto de clases y práctica en la empresa = sandwich programme.

* propiedad de la empresa = company-owned.

* PYME (Pequeña y Mediana Empresa) = SME (Small and Medium Sized Enterprise).

* que afecta a toda la empresa = enterprise-wide.

* sitio web de empresa = business site, corporate site.

* trabajador cualificado contratado de otra empresa = lateral hire.

* ya parte de la empresa = on board.

1 to make possible.

El libro facilita la tarea The book makes the task easy.

2 to make it possible to.

El libro facilita terminar pronto The book makes it easy to finish soon.

* * *

VT (=hacer posible) [+ acuerdo, acceso] to make possible; [+ idea, plan] to make feasible

* * *

verbo transitivo to make... possible

* * *

= enable, empower, make + possible, provide + a basis for, provide for.

Ex. Equally, various trade directories and other lists need to list and organise names in a form that will enable a searcher to find information about an organisation or person.

Ex. This empowers them to control their lives and participate actively in the development of a just and peaceful society.

Ex. Field searching: the ability to search for the occurrence of terms in specific fields within the record makes it possible to be more precise in searching.

Ex. This framework is designed to provide a basis both for identifying differences between firms and for thinking through the implications and likely outcomes of intervention both operationally and competitively.

Ex. Each card has a grid covering most of the body of the card which provides for the coding of document numbers.

* * *

verbo transitivo to make... possible

* * *

* * *

posibilitar [A1 ]

to make … possible

la organización que posibilita estos contactos the organization which makes these meetings possible o which facilitates these meetings

su gestión posibilitó la realización de este encuentro his work made it possible for this meeting to take place, his work enabled us to hold this meeting o made this meeting possible

* * *

* * *

posibilitar vt

to make possible;

las negociaciones posibilitaron el alto el fuego the negotiations made a cease-fire possible

* * *

v/t make possible

* * *

posibilitar vt

: to make possible, to permit

* * *

1. ( физический процесс) work, activity

рабо́та по, напр. перемеще́нию электро́на в по́ле — the work done by the field on an electron to move it (from … to …)

соверша́ть рабо́ту — do work

2. (качество, способ исполнения) workmanship

3. (конкретное или ограниченное задание, занятие, труд) job

4. (величина с качественным оттенком, показатель работы, рабочая характеристика) performance

5. ( функционирование) operation, service, use

включа́ть в рабо́ту — switch in use

включа́ть, напр. генера́тор на рабо́ту с вне́шней модуля́цией — set, e. g., an oscillator for external modulation

выключа́ть из рабо́ты — switch out of use

контроли́ровать рабо́ту (особ. периодически) — check the operation of …

контроли́ровать рабо́ту (особ. непрерывно) — monitor the operation of …

прекраща́ть рабо́ту автомати́чески — cease to operate automatically

6. (продукт труда, готовое изделие) work

автомати́ческая рабо́та — automatic operation

автоно́мная рабо́та вчт. — off-line operation

акко́рдная рабо́та — piece work, task work

армату́рные рабо́ты — installation of reinforcement

асинхро́нная рабо́та — asynchronous working

безавари́йная рабо́та — trouble-free operation

рабо́та без обслу́живающего персона́ла — unattended operation

безотка́зная рабо́та — no-failure operation

бесперебо́йная рабо́та — continuity of service

бесшу́мная рабо́та — silence in operation, silent operation

бето́нные рабо́ты — concreting, concrete placement

брига́дная рабо́та — team work

буровзрывны́е рабо́ты — drilling and blasting (operations)

рабо́та в авари́йных усло́виях — emergency operation

взрывны́е рабо́ты — shotfiring, blasting

рабо́та в крити́ческом режи́ме — critical operation

рабо́та в откры́том ко́смосе ( выход в открытый космос) — extravehicular activity, EVA

рабо́та вразно́с ( о двигателе) — racing, runaway

рабо́та в реа́льном масшта́бе вре́мени вчт. — real-time operation

вскрышны́е рабо́ты горн. — overburden operations, overburden mining

рабо́та вы́хода электро́на, напр. из мета́лла — (electronic) work function, e. g., of a metal

соверша́ть рабо́ту вы́хода электро́на, напр. из мета́лла — do work on escaping, e. g., from a metal

горноспаса́тельные рабо́ты — rescue work, rescue operations

двухпо́люсная рабо́та — тлг. брит. double-current working; амер. polar (current) working

двухсме́нная рабо́та — two-shift operation

рабо́та ди́плексом свз. — diplex operation, diplex working

дноуглуби́тельные рабо́ты — dredging

доро́жно-строи́тельные рабо́ты — road-building

рабо́та ду́плексом свз. — duplex operation, duplex working

землечерпа́тельные рабо́ты — dredging

земляны́е рабо́ты — earth-moving, excavation, digging

земляны́е рабо́ты с по́мощью я́дерных взры́вов — nuclear digging, nuclear excavation

индика́торная рабо́та — indicator work

рабо́та ключо́м — keying, key modulation

рабо́та констру́кции — structural behaviour

кро́вельные рабо́ты — roofing

круглосу́точная рабо́та — round-the-clock operation, twenty-four-hour service

лесоперева́лочные рабо́ты — reloading operations

лине́йные рабо́ты — line work

маля́рные рабо́ты — painting

механи́ческая рабо́та — mechanical work

монта́жные рабо́ты — erection [installation] work

рабо́та на борту́ косми́ческого корабля́ — intravehicular activity, IVA

нала́дочные рабо́ты — adjustment and alignment

рабо́та на му́фте турби́ны — shaft work

нау́чно-иссле́довательская рабо́та — research (work)

непреры́вная рабо́та — continuous work

норма́льная рабо́та — normal operation

однопо́люсная рабо́та — тлг. брит. single-current working; амер. neutral working

о́пытно-констру́кторская рабо́та [ОКР] — research and development (work), R&D work

о́пытные рабо́ты — development work(s)

отва́льные рабо́ты — dumping

отде́лочная рабо́та — finishing work

паралле́льная рабо́та — parallel operation

при паралле́льной рабо́те, напр. генера́торов — with, e. g., generators paralleled

периоди́ческая рабо́та — intermittent [batch] operation

пла́новая рабо́та — scheduled work

плохая́ рабо́та ( низкое качество исполнения) — poor workmanship

погру́зочно-разгру́зочные рабо́ты — ( в промышленности) materials handling; ( на транспорте) cargo [freight] handling

поиско́во-спаса́тельные рабо́ты ( на море или суше) — search and rescue (operations)

полевы́е рабо́ты — field work

полуду́плексная рабо́та свз. — half-duplex operation

рабо́та по поро́де горн. — deadwork, stonework

рабо́та по схе́ме постоя́нного то́ка свз. — closed circuit working

промысло́вые рабо́ты — fishing operations

разве́дочные рабо́ты ( для промышленной оценки месторождений полезных ископаемых) — prospecting

разде́льная рабо́та — isolated operation

при разде́льной рабо́те, напр. генера́торов — with, e. g., generators isolated

ро́вная рабо́та (напр. двигателя) — smooth running

ручна́я рабо́та — hand work

сверхуро́чная рабо́та — overtime work

рабо́та с да́нными вчт. — data handling

рабо́та си́мплексом свз. — simplex [up and down] working

синфа́зная рабо́та — in-phase operation

синхро́нная рабо́та — synchronous [synchronized] operation

ска́льные рабо́ты — rock excavation

сме́нная рабо́та — shift work

совме́стная рабо́та, напр. армату́ры и бето́на — collaboration of, e. g., steel and concrete

рабо́та с перебо́ями — erratic operation; двс. rough running

рабо́та с разделе́нием вре́мени вчт. — time-sharing operation

строи́тельные рабо́ты — civil engineering work

тока́рная рабо́та — lathe work

рабо́та тона́льно-модули́рованными колеба́ниями свз. — MCW operation, MCW service

убо́рочные рабо́ты — harvesting

штукату́рные рабо́ты — ( внутренние) plastering; ( наружные) stuccoing

электромонта́жные рабо́ты — electric installation work

SUBJECT AREA: Civil engineering, Ports and shipping

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On completing his schooling, Deas spent some years in a locomotive manufacturing shop in Edinburgh and then in a civil engineer's office. He selected the railway for his career, and moved upwards through the professional ranks, working for different companies until 1864 when he became Engineer-in-Chief of the Edinburgh \& Glasgow Railway. This later became the North British Railway and after some years, in 1869, Deas moved to the Clyde Navigation Trust as their Engineer. For thirty years he controlled the development of this great river, and with imaginative vision and determined hard work he saw a trebling in revenue, length of quayage and water area under the Trust's jurisdiction. His office worked on a wide range of problems, including civil engineering, maintenance of harbour craft and the drafting of reports for the many Parliamentary Acts required for the extension of Glasgow Harbour. To understand the immensity of the task, one must appreciate that the River Clyde then had sixty-five shipyards and could handle the largest ships afloat. This had come through the canalization of the old meandering and shallow stream and the difficult removal of the river bed's rock barriers.

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SUBJECT AREA: Photography, film and optics

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Dickson was born in France of English and Scottish parents. As a young man of almost 19 years, he wrote in 1879 to Thomas Edison in America, asking for a job. Edison replied that he was not taking on new staff at that time, but Dickson, with his mother and sisters, decided to emigrate anyway. In 1883 he contacted Edison again, and was given a job at the Goerk Street laboratory of the Edison Electric Works in New York. He soon assumed a position of responsibility as Superintendent, working on the development of electric light and power systems, and also carried out most of the photography Edison required. In 1888 he moved to the Edison West Orange laboratory, becoming Head of the ore-milling department. When Edison, inspired by Muybridge's sequence photographs of humans and animals in motion, decided to develop a motion picture apparatus, he gave the task to Dickson, whose considerable skills in mechanics, photography and electrical work made him the obvious choice. The first experiments, in 1888, were on a cylinder machine like the phonograph, in which the sequence pictures were to be taken in a spiral. This soon proved to be impractical, and work was delayed for a time while Dickson developed a new ore-milling machine. Little progress with the movie project was made until George Eastman's introduction in July 1889 of celluloid roll film, which was thin, tough, transparent and very flexible. Dickson returned to his experiments in the spring of 1891 and soon had working models of a film camera and viewer, the latter being demonstrated at the West Orange laboratory on 20 May 1891. By the early summer of 1892 the project had advanced sufficiently for commercial exploitation to begin. The Kinetograph camera used perforated 35 mm film (essentially the same as that still in use in the late twentieth century), and the kinetoscope, a peep-show viewer, took fifty feet of film running in an endless loop. Full-scale manufacture of the viewers started in 1893, and they were demonstrated on a number of occasions during that year. On 14 April 1894 the first kinetoscope parlour, with ten viewers, was opened to the public in New York. By the end of that year, the kinetoscope was seen by the public all over America and in Europe. Dickson had created the first commercially successful cinematograph system. Dickson left Edison's employment on 2 April 1895, and for a time worked with Woodville Latham on the development of his Panoptikon projector, a projection version of the kinetoscope. In December 1895 he joined with Herman Casier, Henry N.Marvin and Elias Koopman to form the American Mutoscope Company. Casier had designed the Mutoscope, an animated-picture viewer in which the sequences of pictures were printed on cards fixed radially to a drum and were flipped past the eye as the drum rotated. Dickson designed the Biograph wide-film camera to produce the picture sequences, and also a projector to show the films directly onto a screen. The large-format images gave pictures of high quality for the period; the Biograph went on public show in America in September 1896, and subsequently throughout the world, operating until around 1905. In May 1897 Dickson returned to England and set up as a producer of Biograph films, recording, among other subjects, Queen Victoria's Diamond Jubilee celebrations in 1897, Pope Leo XIII in 1898, and scenes of the Boer War in 1899 and 1900. Many of the Biograph subjects were printed as reels for the Mutoscope to produce the "what the butler saw" machines which were a feature of fairgrounds and seaside arcades until modern times. Dickson's contact with the Biograph Company, and with it his involvement in cinematography, ceased in 1911.

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SUBJECT AREA: Mechanical, pneumatic and hydraulic engineering, Photography, film and optics, Public utilities

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While he was attending the Military School at Mannheim, Reichenbach drew attention to himself due to the mathematical instruments that he had designed. On the recommendation of Count Rumford in Munich, the Bavarian government financed a two-year stay in Britain so that Reichenbach could become acquainted with modern mechanical engineering. He returned to Mannheim in 1793, and during the Napoleonic Wars he was involved in the manufacture of arms. In Munich, where he was in the service of the Bavarian state from 1796, he started producing precision instruments in his own time. His basic invention was the design of a dividing machine for circles, produced at the end of the eighteenth century. The astronomic and geodetic instruments he produced excelled all the others for their precision. His telescopes in particular, being perfect in use and of solid construction, soon brought him an international reputation. They were manufactured at the MathematicMechanical Institute, which he had jointly founded with Joseph Utzschneider and Joseph Liebherr in 1804 and which became a renowned training establishment. The glasses and lenses were produced by Joseph Fraunhofer who joined the company in 1807.

In the same year he was put in charge of the technical reorganization of the salt-works at Reichenhall. After he had finished the brine-transport line from Reichenhall to Traunstein in 1810, he started on the one from Berchtesgaden to Reichenhall which was an extremely difficult task because of the mountainous area that had to be crossed. As water was the only source of energy available he decided to use water-column engines for pumping the brine in the pipes of both lines. Such devices had been in use for pumping purposes in different mining areas since the middle of the eighteenth century. Reichenbach knew about the one constructed by Joseph Karl Hell in Slovakia, which in principle had just been a simple piston-pump driven by water which did not work satisfactorily. Instead he constructed a really effective double-action water-column engine; this was a short time after Richard Trevithick had constructed a similar machine in England. For the second line he improved the system and built a single-action pump. All the parts of it were made of metal, which made them easy to produce, and the pumps proved to be extremely reliable, working for over 100 years.

At the official opening of the line in 1817 the Bavarian king rewarded him generously. He remained in the state's service, becoming head of the department for roads and waterways in 1820, and he contributed to the development of Bavarian industry as well as the public infrastructure in many ways as a result of his mechanical skill and his innovative engineering mind.

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   1) Biological and Social Brain Development

   Among the higher mammals the great development of neocortex occurs.

   In each group of mammals there is a steady increase in the area of the association cortex from the most primitive to the evolutionarily most recent type; there is an increase in the number of neurons and their connections. The degree of consciousness of an organism is some function of neuronal cell number and connectivity, perhaps of neurons of a particular type in association cortex regions. This function is of a threshold type such that there is a significant quantitative break with the emergence of humans. Although the importance of language and the argument that it is genetically specified and unique to humans must be reconsidered in the light of the recent evidence as to the possibility of teaching chimpanzees, if not to speak, then to manipulate symbolic words and phrases, there are a number of unique human features which combine to make the transition not merely quantitative, but also qualitative. In particular these include the social, productive nature of human existence, and the range and extent of the human capacity to communicate. These features have made human history not so much one of biological but of social evolution, of continuous cultural transformation. (Rose, 1976, pp. 180-181)

   2) Distinctive Evolutionary Properties of the Brain

   [S]ome particular property of higher primate and cetacean brains did not evolve until recently. But what was that property? I can suggest at least four possibilities...: (1) Never before was there a brain so massive; (2) Never before was there a brain with so large a ratio of brain to body mass; (3) Never before was there a brain with certain functional units (large frontal and temporal lobes, for example); (4) Never before was there a brain with so many neural connections or synapses.... Explanations 1, 2 and 4 argue that a quantitative change produced a qualitative change. It does not seem to me that a crisp choice among these four alternatives can be made at the present time, and I suspect that the truth will actually embrace most or all of these possibilities. (Sagan, 1978, pp. 107-109)

   3) The Evolutionary Increase in the Size of the Main Areas of the Brain

   The crucial change in the human brain in this million years or so has not been so much the increase in size by a factor of three, but the concentration of that increase in three or four main areas. The visual area has increased considerably, and, compared with the chimpanzee, the actual density of human brain cells is at least 50 percent greater. A second increase has taken place in the area of manipulation of the hand, which is natural since we are much more hand-driven animals than monkeys and apes. Another main increase has taken place in the temporal lobe, in which visual memory, integration, and speech all lie fairly close together. And the fourth great increase has taken place in the frontal lobes. Their function is extremely difficult to understand... ; but it is clear that they're largely responsible for the ability to initiate a task, to be attentive while it is being done, and to persevere with it. (Bronowski, 1978, pp. 23-24)

   4) The Human Brain and Ethical Principles

   The human brain works however it works. Wishing for it to work in some way as a shortcut to justifying some ethical principle undermines both the science and the ethics (for what happens to the principle if the scientific facts turn out to go the other way?). (Pinker, 1994, p. 427)

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The establishment was set up solely (or exclusively) for the development of engines.

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They assert that the genetic code has a biological basis for its structural organization, and no other.

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If the mantle were made of nothing but gem-quality crystals,...

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This choice is made purely on the basis of convenience.

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This rule applies strictly to a harmonic oscillator.

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These proteins occur uniquely in tissues in which gene transcription is severely repressed.

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This task can become enormously (or exceedingly, or extremely) complex.

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Such monopoles would be extraordinarily (or exceedingly, or exceptionally) massive.

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The sediments contain remarkably (or extremely) high concentrations of sulphide minerals.

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The instrument is exquisitely sensitive.

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Manganin is eminently suitable for standard resistors.

1) General subject: arbitrage, arbitration, referee's court, referees court, court of private arbitration (P.B. Maggs), mediation court (E&Y), THIRD PARTY ARBITRATION COURT (ACCORDING TO UK DEPARTMENT FOR INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT (http://www.dfid.gov.uk/Site-search/?q=TPAC) TPAC http://www.tpac.tj/eng/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&i)

2) Law: Common Court of Arbitration, adjudicative claims arbitration, arbitration tribunal, court of referees, intermediate court, private arbitration, reference tribunal, tribunal of arbitrators, arbitration court, binding arbitration

3) Economy: arbitral authority, court of arbitration

4) Patents: arbitrament, arbitrator's office

5) Sakhalin energy glossary: tribunal

6) EBRD: arbitral tribunal

• Наше обсуждение будет облегчено введением... - Our discussion will be facilitated by the introduction of...

• Развитие этой теории в огромной степени облегчается... - The development of this theory is greatly facilitated by...

• Это задание облегчается, если заметить, что... - This task is made easier bj' noticing that...